What Is Affirmative Action? How It Works and Example

Affirmative action is a term that sparks debate across political, social, and economic spheres. It refers to a set of policies and practices designed to address historical inequalities and promote equal opportunities for individuals from underrepresented or disadvantaged groups. While its implementation varies by country and context, affirmative action is most commonly associated with efforts to combat discrimination based on race, gender, ethnicity, or other characteristics. In the United States, it has been a cornerstone of civil rights discussions for decades, shaping education, employment, and public policy. This article explores what affirmative action is, how it works, and provides real-world examples to illustrate its impact.

Defining Affirmative Action

At its core, affirmative action is about taking proactive steps—affirmative measures—to level the playing field for groups that have been historically marginalized. The term first appeared in the United States in 1961, when President John F. Kennedy signed Executive Order 10925, which mandated that government contractors “take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin.” This marked the beginning of a formal effort to address systemic discrimination, particularly against African Americans, in the wake of centuries of slavery, segregation, and unequal treatment.

Over time, the concept evolved beyond simply preventing discrimination. It began to include policies aimed at actively promoting diversity and inclusion. Affirmative action is not a single law but a framework that encompasses various initiatives, such as targeted recruitment, preferential hiring, or adjusted admissions criteria in educational institutions. Its proponents argue that it corrects past wrongs and fosters a more equitable society, while critics contend it can lead to reverse discrimination or undermine meritocracy.

Affirmative action is often misunderstood as a quota system, where a fixed number of spots are reserved for certain groups. While quotas have been used in some instances (and later ruled unconstitutional in the U.S.), modern affirmative action typically involves more nuanced approaches, such as considering race or gender as one factor among many in decision-making processes.

How Affirmative Action Works

The mechanics of affirmative action depend on the context—whether it’s applied in employment, education, or government contracting—and the specific policies in place. Below, we break down how it generally operates in these key areas.

1. Education

In higher education, affirmative action is most visible in college admissions. Universities may use race, ethnicity, or gender as a “plus factor” to achieve a diverse student body. This doesn’t mean admitting unqualified candidates; rather, it involves weighing an applicant’s background alongside traditional metrics like grades and test scores. The goal is to ensure that students from underrepresented groups—such as racial minorities or low-income communities—have access to opportunities they might otherwise be denied due to systemic barriers.

For example, a university might prioritize an applicant from an underserved community who demonstrates potential, even if their SAT score is slightly lower than that of another candidate. Admissions officers often consider factors like socioeconomic status, first-generation college status, or personal challenges to build a holistic picture of each applicant.

2. Employment

In the workplace, affirmative action can take the form of targeted recruitment efforts, training programs, or policies to ensure fair hiring and promotion practices. Employers, especially those with government contracts, may be required to develop affirmative action plans to address underrepresentation of certain groups in their workforce. This might involve outreach to minority communities, partnerships with organizations that support women in STEM, or mentorship programs for employees from disadvantaged backgrounds.

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in the U.S. oversees compliance with federal anti-discrimination laws, and affirmative action often aligns with these efforts. However, private companies may also adopt voluntary affirmative action programs to enhance diversity and meet corporate social responsibility goals.

3. Government Contracts

Affirmative action extends to public procurement, where governments may set aside contracts for businesses owned by women, minorities, or veterans. This ensures that historically excluded groups have a fair shot at economic opportunities. For instance, the U.S. Small Business Administration’s 8(a) Business Development Program supports disadvantaged businesses by providing them with resources and preferential access to federal contracts.

Legal Framework

In the U.S., affirmative action operates within a complex legal landscape. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 laid the groundwork by prohibiting discrimination, but subsequent court cases shaped its boundaries. The 1978 Supreme Court case Regents of the University of California v. Bakke ruled that race could be considered in admissions but struck down strict quotas. Later decisions, like Grutter v. Bollinger (2003), upheld the use of race as one factor in achieving diversity, provided it’s narrowly tailored and serves a compelling interest. However, the 2023 Supreme Court ruling in Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard effectively ended race-based affirmative action in college admissions, shifting the focus to race-neutral alternatives.

Outside the U.S., affirmative action takes different forms. In India, for example, the government uses a reservation system, setting aside a percentage of government jobs and educational seats for “Scheduled Castes,” “Scheduled Tribes,” and “Other Backward Classes.” In South Africa, post-apartheid policies like Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) aim to redress economic disparities caused by decades of racial segregation.

Examples of Affirmative Action in Action

To better understand affirmative action, let’s examine a few concrete examples from different contexts.

Example 1: University Admissions in the U.S.

Before the 2023 Supreme Court decision, many American universities employed affirmative action to diversify their campuses. Take the University of Michigan in the early 2000s. In Grutter v. Bollinger, the Supreme Court reviewed the university’s law school admissions process, which gave a “plus factor” to underrepresented minorities. Barbara Grutter, a white applicant, argued she was unfairly denied admission due to her race. The Court upheld the policy, finding that diversity in higher education was a compelling interest and that Michigan’s approach was sufficiently flexible—not a rigid quota.

This case highlighted how affirmative action worked in practice: race was one of many considerations, not the sole determinant. The ruling allowed universities to continue these policies for two decades, admitting thousands of students from diverse backgrounds who might otherwise have been overlooked.

Example 2: Corporate Hiring at IBM

In the private sector, companies like IBM have embraced voluntary affirmative action to build inclusive workforces. In the 1990s and 2000s, IBM launched initiatives to increase the representation of women and minorities in tech roles. This included partnerships with historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs), scholarships for underrepresented students, and leadership programs for female employees. By 2020, IBM reported that 32% of its U.S. workforce were women and 28% were racial minorities—figures that reflect decades of intentional diversity efforts.

IBM’s approach shows how affirmative action can extend beyond legal mandates. It’s about recognizing that talent exists across all groups and that systemic barriers—like lack of access to education or networking—can skew hiring pools unless addressed.

Example 3: India’s Reservation System

India offers one of the most extensive examples of affirmative action globally. Under its constitution, the government reserves 15% of government jobs and educational seats for Scheduled Castes (historically oppressed groups like Dalits) and 7.5% for Scheduled Tribes (indigenous communities). An additional 27% is reserved for Other Backward Classes, based on social and economic disadvantage.

For instance, a student from a Scheduled Caste applying to a public university might gain admission with a lower entrance exam score than a general-category student. This system has lifted millions out of poverty and increased representation in fields like medicine and engineering. However, it’s also controversial, with critics arguing it perpetuates caste divisions or disadvantages meritorious candidates from non-reserved groups.

Example 4: South Africa’s Black Economic Empowerment

After apartheid ended in 1994, South Africa introduced affirmative action policies to address racial inequalities in employment and business ownership. The Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-BBEE) program, launched in 2003, encourages companies to hire and promote Black South Africans, as well as support Black-owned businesses. Companies are scored on a B-BBEE scorecard, which affects their ability to secure government contracts.

A practical outcome: a Black entrepreneur might receive preferential funding or contracts to start a construction firm, helping to shift economic power away from the white minority that dominated under apartheid. While B-BBEE has created a growing Black middle class, it’s also faced criticism for benefiting a small elite rather than the broader population.

The Debate Surrounding Affirmative Action

Affirmative action remains polarizing. Supporters argue it’s a necessary tool to dismantle systemic inequities rooted in history—whether slavery in the U.S., caste in India, or apartheid in South Africa. Data backs this up: a 2017 study by the National Bureau of Economic Research found that affirmative action in U.S. college admissions increased Black and Hispanic enrollment without significantly lowering academic standards.

Critics, however, see it as a form of reverse discrimination that penalizes individuals from majority groups. They point to cases like Bakke, where Allan Bakke, a white applicant, was rejected from medical school despite strong qualifications, while minority candidates with lower scores were admitted. Others argue it can stigmatize beneficiaries, implying they succeeded only due to their identity, not merit.

The 2023 U.S. Supreme Court decision reflects this tension. By striking down race-conscious admissions, it signaled a shift toward “colorblind” policies, though many institutions are now exploring alternatives like socioeconomic-based preferences or expanded outreach to maintain diversity.

Conclusion

Affirmative action is a multifaceted approach to addressing inequality, rooted in the recognition that history leaves lasting scars on opportunity. Whether through college admissions, workplace diversity programs, or government reservations, it seeks to balance fairness with the realities of systemic disadvantage. Its implementation varies widely—from the U.S.’s flexible, court-tested policies to India’s rigid quotas—yet its goal remains consistent: to create a more inclusive society.

Examples like the University of Michigan, IBM, India’s reservation system, and South Africa’s B-BBEE illustrate both its successes and challenges. While affirmative action has opened doors for millions, it also raises tough questions about merit, fairness, and the best path to equality. As debates evolve and policies adapt—especially in light of recent legal shifts—its legacy will continue to shape how we confront the past and build the future.